Anyone who’s into American black bear hunting knows, that some of the bruins are “color phase”. Outfitters who operate in areas with a high percentage of such bears never fail to mention that in the advertising, but it doesn’t cost extra to harvest one. If you begin to study price lists of South African and Namibian outfitters, however, you’ll notice that some “color variants”, like “Golden wildebeest”, may cost significantly more than the same species with typical colorations. Where do those “color phases” or “color variants” come from, and why are they treated so differently? Here’s what you need to know. 

Key Points About Color Phase Animals

A color phase is not a different species but rather a variation within the same species. For example, a black bear might be black, brown, cinnamon, blonde, or even white (as in the Kermode or “spirit” bear). Certain color phases are more common in specific regions. For example, cinnamon-phase black bears are more common in the western United States.

These variations often arise from genetic mutations or adaptations to specific environments. A particular color phase may help an animal blend into its environment better, offering protection from predators or aiding in hunting.

Many hunters find color phase animals particularly intriguing because of their rarity or the added challenge of spotting and harvesting them. In most cases, this is legal. However, sometimes hunting regulations account for the rarity of certain color phases and/or their cultural significance. For example, hunting “spirit bears” in British Columbia is prohibited.

Color Phases Explained: The Case of the American Black Bear

When American hunters are talking about color phase animals, five to one they’re talking about the Ursus americanus, also known as the black bear. The thing is, this species is often anything but black. What color phases are there, and what causes them?

Black Bear Color Phases

Black: The most common and dominant color phase, providing excellent camouflage in forested environments.

Brown/Cinnamon: Likely arises from a recessive mutation and is more common in western regions.

Blonde: A rarer phase resulting from further mutations that reduce eumelanin production.

White (Kermode): Caused by a specific recessive gene mutation in the MC1R gene, found primarily in certain populations in British Columbia.

The Key “Color Phase” Genes

Color phases in the American black bear are caused by mutations in specific genes that regulate pigmentation in the fur. 

Melanocortin-1 Receptor (MC1R): This gene plays a significant role in determining fur color by regulating the production of eumelanin (dark pigment) and pheomelanin (light pigment). Mutations here can lead to color changes like cinnamon or blonde bears.

Agouti Signaling Protein (ASIP): This gene influences the pattern and distribution of pigments, leading to variations like the white fur of Kermode bears.

These genetic variations are inherited and can be passed down even when the parents have different color phases.

Why Do Color Phases Exist?

The rule of thumb in genetics is, the gene that offers an evolutionary advantage will ultimately displace competing genes. For example, in Scotland and the north of England it doesn’t often snow in winter, and the white winter plumage of the ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) only makes the bird more conspicuous. So, a mutation that kept the bird brown all year helped survival, and as more and more all-brown birds lived through the winter, their share in the population kept increasing until only the carriers of this mutation were left. At present, the red grouse (Lagopus scottica) is considered an independent species.

Why hasn’t anything like that happened to the black bear? The answer lies in the complex interplay of evolutionary pressures.

When different traits (like color phases) are maintained in a population due to varying advantages in different contexts, it’s called balancing selection. For instance, in regions where bears are exposed to diverse habitats (forests, meadows, or snowfields), no single color phase consistently outperforms the others. Black color may help the bruins blend in forests, but  lighter-colored bears may thermoregulate better in warmer environments.

Black bears are highly mobile, and individuals from different populations frequently interbreed. This gene flow keeps a variety of color phases in circulation, preventing any one phase from becoming dominant. Fur color might be linked to other genetic traits that offer advantages, such as disease resistance or reproductive success. Finally, black bears have few natural predators, meaning survival isn’t heavily dependent on camouflage. This relaxed selective pressure allows multiple color phases to coexist.

In Africa

In Africa, many species have color phase variants, just like black bear or mallard in North America. However, humans took it to the next level, using controversial practices to promote, and something create, the most striking and unusual creatures. Let’s delve deeper into this issue, starting with the variants that naturally occur in the wild.

Shadow Stripe Zebra

The most common color phase of the zebra (Equus quagga) is one with “shadow stripes”, lighter, almost faded striping between the typical black-and-white bands. Shadow stripes are common in subspecies like the Burchell’s zebra. Sometimes, a reduction in black pigment levels causes the dark stripes to appear lighter, tan or brown. Such animals may even look “blond” or “golden”.

Dark Giraffe

Mature giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) males in some regions, especially in certain populations in East Africa, develop extremely dark, almost black patches as a result of increased melanin production with age. They often cause outrages when headlines like “Hunter Kills Rare Dark Giraffe” mislead well-intentioned but poorly informed public into believing the harvested animal belonged to an endangered species.

White Lion 

Lions (Panthera leo) naturally range from light sandy to dark tawny coats, with some being unusually pale or dark.  White lions occur naturally in the Greater Timbavati region of South Africa. They are not albino; they have normal pigmentation in their eyes and skin, it’s leucism that is responsible for their pale blonde to almost pure white coat. While rare in the wild, they are more commonly seen in captivity due to selective breeding. 

Stripeless Greater Kudu

Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) is known for their thin white stripes that have amazing camouflage effect, but a genetic mutation may result in stripeless individuals lacking this characteristic feature. Stripeless kudu have been reported sporadically in Southern Africa.

Golden Nyala

Golden nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) is a rare and naturally occurring color phase with a golden-hued coat instead of the usual dark gray or brown. This phase is caused by a genetic mutation and is prized among hunters. Golden nyalas have been spotted in South Africa, particularly in Zululand.

Black and Strawberry Leopard 

Black leopard (Panthera pardus), also known as black panther, is a melanistic variation where the leopard’s coat appears black, though spots (rosettes) are still visible under certain lighting conditions. Black leopards are rare in Africa but more commonly observed in dense forests such as those in Kenya (Aberdare Mountains) or Ethiopia.

Even more amazing is the strawberry leopard, a colour variant found in South Africa. It exhibits a striking appearance, characterised by pale skin, faint spots, blue eyes, a pink nose, and pink paw pads, all resulting from a unique coat colour dilution.

Color Variants and African Game Farms

Some game farms in South Africa and Namibia selectively breed color variants of several plains game species. This has an economic value. Some hunters consider color variants to be rare and exotic trophies, making them a unique addition to their collection. Their perceived rarity adds to their appeal as status symbols. Between these hunters, color variants are highly valued, and these hunters can pay significantly higher fees to harvest these unique animals. A golden wildebeest, for example, can command a much higher price than a standard blue wildebeest.

Game farms cater to the demand by selectively breeding animals carrying the genetic mutations responsible for unusual coloration. The controlled environments of game farms ensure the survival of recessive traits that would be diluted or suppressed in the wild. Some of the most common species purposefully bred on game farms for their color variants include:

Wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus)

Golden Wildebeest: A stunning golden coat with darker markings on the face and legs.

King Wildebeest: A distinctive greyish-brown coat with a lighter, almost cream-colored muzzle and mane.

Royal Wildbeest: Also known as a Ghost wildbeest, this variant is near to pure white.  

Impala (Aepyceros melampus)

Black Impala: A deep black coat that stands out against the usual reddish-brown of typical impalas.

White-Flanked Impala: A lighter coloration with prominent white patches along the flanks.

White Impala: This rare and fascinating variant of the common impala is known for its distinctive white coat.

Saddle-backed Impala: Has a dark brown saddle on its back and a dark face

Dappled Impala: boasts striking dappled markings 

Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis)

Black Springbok: A striking melanistic variant with a deep black coat that contrasts dramatically with the typical tan and white coloration of the common springbok.

White Springbok: This rare leucistic variant boasts an almost entirely white coat, with subtle cream undertones and normal pigmentation in the eyes and hooves, distinguishing it from albino animals.  

Copper Springbok: A stunning reddish-brown or copper-colored coat replaces the traditional tan, giving this variant a warm, golden glow that shimmers in sunlight.  

King Springbok (Mottled): A unique and eye-catching variant, the king or mottled springbok features irregular patterns of white, tan, and dark brown across its coat, creating a patchwork effect that sets it apart from other color phases. 

Blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi)  

Copper Blesbok: A rich, reddish-brown coat with a metallic copper sheen that makes it stand out from the typical chocolate-brown of the common blesbok. This striking coloration is particularly vibrant in sunlight.  

Dappled Blesbok: Boasts a unique pattern of lighter, irregular spots across its coat, creating a dappled appearance that contrasts with the usual uniform coloring. This phase is both rare and visually stunning.  

Saddle-backed Blesbok: Features a dark brown or black “saddle” marking on its back, distinct from the lighter coat around the rest of the body. The face often retains the typical white blaze, emphasizing the dark saddle.  

White Blesbok: A striking leucistic variant with a white coat, often covered in darker spots. Unlike albinos, the white blesbok has normal-colored eyes and horns.

Yellow Blesbok: A pale golden or yellowish hue replaces the usual dark brown coat, giving this rare variant a soft, almost ethereal appearance. The face blaze and legs are often a slightly darker tone, creating a subtle contrast. 

Other species with color variants include golden and red gemsbok, which have lighter, sandy-colored coats instead of the usual gray. Nyalas with lighter, cream-colored coats are occasionally bred. White and tan variants of the sable have been selectively bred but remain rare.

Criticism and Controversy

The practice of breeding color variants has sparked debate among conservationists, ethical hunters, and wildlife biologists. A big concern from the genetic standpoint is interbreeding. To ensure the desired coloration, animals with recessive traits are often inbred, which can lead to reduced genetic diversity and associated health problems. This is particularly concerning in small populations where genetic bottlenecks can occur.

In addition, artificial manipulation can also be viewed as unethical. Critics argue that breeding for color variants prioritizes aesthetics and profit over the well-being and natural behavior of the species. 

Some believe it detracts from the ethical principles of fair-chase hunting, as these animals are often raised in controlled environments. Hunting color variants is often associated with “canned”, specifically “put-and-take” practices, where animals are bred and confined in small areas, raising concerns about the authenticity of the hunting experience.

Conservationists worry that prioritizing color breeding diverts resources and attention away from broader conservation goals, such as habitat preservation and maintaining healthy, genetically diverse populations.If released into the wild, animals bred for specific traits might struggle to survive or reproduce, as their unusual coloration could make them more vulnerable to predators or less suited to their environment.

Defenses of the Practice

Proponents of breeding color variants offer several counter arguments. The high prices paid by hunters for color variants help fund conservation efforts on private game farms. Revenue from these hunts supports habitat restoration, anti-poaching efforts, and the maintenance of other wildlife populations.

The unique appearance of color variants raises awareness about the natural genetic diversity within species. Finally, breeding for color variants can reduce pressure on wild populations, as these animals are typically harvested from private reserves rather than national parks or open wildlands.

The Bottom Line 

If we’re talking about free-randing populations, targeting color phase animals is absolutely normal. A darkened giraffe is not a unique genetic mutation or a vanishing population — it’s simply a mature bull that has lived a full life. Color phase black bears have been targeted by humans for at least ten to twelve thousand years, and if they haven’t gone extinct yet, they’re likely to hold on for a few thousand years more. 

If anything, it falls perfectly in line with natural selection – the default color of the population is there, because it maximizes survival. Animals with mutations that stand out have been negatively selected against; in this respect, a human hunter with a rifle or bow is not any different from a wolf or a lion. 

As we move to African game farms, it’s a bit of a different story. The breeding of color variants in African game species is a controversial yet lucrative practice. While it provides significant economic benefits to game farms and attracts hunters seeking rare trophies, it also raises ethical and ecological questions. 

For hunters, pursuing a color variant can be a unique experience, but it’s important to research the game farm and its practices to ensure they align with ethical and conservation-minded principles. By supporting sustainable hunting operations, hunters can help balance the pursuit of rare trophies with the long-term health of African wildlife populations.

More on different approaches to hunting all over the world

Hunting Regulations Compared: The USA versus Africa

By Peter Ruddle

People of all nations hunt, but the ways people hunt, including hunting regulations, vary from country to country, and in federalist countries like the USA, Canada, or South Africa there may be substantial differences even between states and provinces. Failing to recognize these differences may lead to misunderstandings which can spoil the hunting experience. What’s more, these days, when hunting is under attack on every front, it’s more important than ever to acknowledge these differences, in order to avoid well-intentioned friendly fire that results from lack of understanding.

With this in mind, let’s compare hunting regulations in the United States, South Africa, and other African countries, and identify distinct approaches that reflect each region’s unique wildlife populations, conservation needs, cultural perspectives, and economic considerations. CONTINUE READING